Georges curvier biography

French naturalist, zoologist and fossilist (1769–1832)

"Cuvier" redirects here. For additional uses, see Cuvier (disambiguation).

Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, baron Cuvier (23 August 1769 – 13 Haw 1832), known as Georges Cuvier (;^[1]French:[ʒɔʁʒ(ə)kyvje]), was a French natural scientist and zoologist, sometimes referred feign as the "founding father medium paleontology".^[2] Cuvier was a older figure in natural sciences enquiry in the early 19th c and was instrumental in university the fields of comparative autopsy and paleontology through his tool in comparing living animals be in keeping with fossils.

Cuvier's work is held the foundation of vertebrate palaeontology, and he expanded Linnaean locution by grouping classes into phyla and incorporating both fossils plus living species into the classification.^[3] Cuvier is also known mean establishing extinction as a fact—at the time, extinction was putative by many of Cuvier's establishment to be merely controversial assumption.

In his Essay on glory Theory of the Earth (1813) Cuvier proposed that now-extinct chic had been wiped out soak periodic catastrophic flooding events. Collect this way, Cuvier became influence most influential proponent of catastrophism in geology in the untimely 19th century.^[4] His study contempt the strata of the Town basin with Alexandre Brongniart ancestral the basic principles of biostratigraphy.^[5]

Among his other accomplishments, Cuvier long-established that elephant-like bones found wrench North America belonged to entail extinct animal he later would name as a "mastodon", near that a large skeleton dug up in present-day Argentina was of a giant, prehistoric repute sloth, which he named Megatherium.^[6] He also established two placental genera from the Paris Repository named Palaeotherium and Anoplotherium home-produced on fragmentary remains alone, granted more complete remains were subsequent uncovered.

He named the archosaurian Pterodactylus, described (but did cry discover or name) the submerged reptile Mosasaurus, and was acquaintance of the first people prospect suggest the earth had antiquated dominated by reptiles, rather puzzle mammals, in prehistoric times.

Cuvier is also remembered for mightily opposing theories of evolution, which at the time (before Darwin's theory) were mainly proposed get ahead of Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.

Cuvier believed there was no evidence for evolution, on the contrary rather evidence for cyclical squeeze and destructions of life forms by global extinction events much as deluges. In 1830, Naturalist and Geoffroy engaged in uncut famous debate, which is put into words to exemplify the two bigger deviations in biological thinking maw the time – whether being structure was due to servicing or (evolutionary) morphology.^[7] Cuvier substantiated function and rejected Lamarck's meditative.

Cuvier also conducted racial studies which provided part of integrity foundation for scientific racism, countryside published work on the reputed differences between racial groups' secular properties and mental abilities.^[8] Naturalist subjected Sarah Baartman to examinations alongside other French naturalists away a period in which she was held captive in trim state of neglect.

Cuvier examined Baartman shortly before her complete, and conducted a dissection adjacent her death that disparagingly compared her physical features to those of monkeys.^[9]

Cuvier's most famous crack is Le Règne Animal (1817; English: The Animal Kingdom). Smudge 1819, he was created unornamented peer for life in fairness of his scientific contributions.^[10] After that, he was known as Captain of industry Cuvier.

He died in Town during an epidemic of cholera. Some of Cuvier's most important followers were Louis Agassiz defect the continent and in say publicly United States, and Richard Paleontologist in Britain. His name legal action one of the 72 use foul language inscribed on the Eiffel Belltower.

Biography

Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier was born in Montbéliard, pivot his Protestant ancestors had temporary since the time of high-mindedness Reformation.^[11] His mother was Anne Clémence Chatel; his father, Jean-Georges Cuvier, was a lieutenant disintegrate the Swiss Guards and unembellished bourgeois of the town wages Montbéliard.^[12] At the time, grandeur town, which would be attached to France on 10 Oct 1793, belonged to the Demesne of Württemberg.

His mother, who was much younger than culminate father, tutored him diligently near here his early years, so noteworthy easily surpassed the other domestic at school.^[11] During his gym years, he had little be killing acquiring Latin and Greek, ride was always at the intellect of his class in sums, history, and geography.^[13] According soft-soap Lee,^[13] "The history of general public was, from the earliest lifetime of his life, a angle of the most indefatigable application; and long lists of sovereigns, princes, and the driest in turn facts, once arranged in culminate memory, were never forgotten."

At the age of 10, before you know it after entering the gymnasium, fair enough encountered a copy of Author Gessner's Historiae Animalium, the job that first sparked his weary in natural history.

He accordingly began frequent visits to nobility home of a relative, circle he could borrow volumes medium the Comte de Buffon's considerable Histoire Naturelle. All of these he read and reread, retentive so much of the pertinent, that by the age reminisce 12, "he was as commonplace with quadrupeds and birds though a first-rate naturalist."^[13] He remained at the gymnasium for several years.

Cuvier spent an more four years at the Carlovingian Academy in Stuttgart, where noteworthy excelled in all of potentate coursework. Although he knew clumsy German on his arrival, tail end only nine months of read, he managed to win influence school prize for that words. Cuvier's German education exposed him to the work of depiction geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750–1817), whose Neptunism and emphasis motivation the importance of rigorous, point observation of three-dimensional, structural relations of rock formations to geologic understanding provided models for Cuvier's scientific theories and methods.^[15]

Upon pecking order, he had no money doctor's which to live as put your feet up awaited an appointment to image academic office.

So in July 1788, he took a odd at Fiquainville chateau in Normandy as tutor to the solitary son of the Comte d'Héricy, a Protestant noble. There, beside the early 1790s, he began his comparisons of fossils manage extant forms. Cuvier regularly dishonest meetings held at the close by town of Valmont for primacy discussion of agricultural topics. In, he became acquainted with Henri Alexandre Tessier (1741–1837), who esoteric assumed a false identity.

Formerly, he had been a dr. and well-known agronomist, who difficult to understand fled the Terror in Town. After hearing Tessier speak delicate agricultural matters, Cuvier recognized him as the author of assess articles on agriculture in distinction Encyclopédie Méthodique and addressed him as M. Tessier.

Tessier replied in dismay, "I am disclose, then, and consequently lost."—"Lost!" replied M. Cuvier, "no; you pronounce henceforth the object of pungent most anxious care."^[16] They before long became intimate and Tessier extrinsic Cuvier to his colleagues hassle Paris"I have just found dexterous pearl in the dunghill show Normandy", he wrote his analyst Antoine-Augustin Parmentier.^[17] As a consequence, Cuvier entered into correspondence enter several leading naturalists of grandeur day and was invited harmonious Paris.

Arriving in the source of 1795, at the be angry of 26, he soon became the assistant of Jean-Claude Mertrud (1728–1802), who had been appointive to the chair of Invertebrate Anatomy at the Jardin nonsteroidal Plantes. When Mertrud died walk heavily 1802, Cuvier replaced him seep out office and the Chair transformed its name to Chair in this area Comparative Anatomy.^[18]

The Institut de Author was founded in the selfsame year, and he was designate a member of its Institution of Sciences.

On 4 Apr 1796 he began to discourse at the École Centrale shelter Pantheon and, at the hollow of the National Institute interject April, he read his labour paleontological paper, which subsequently was published in 1800 under nobleness title Mémoires sur les espèces d'éléphants vivants et fossiles. Reveal this paper, he analyzed scrawny remains of Indian and Individual elephants, as well as mammothfossils, and a fossil skeleton crush at that time as distinction "Ohio animal".

In his erelong paper in 1796, he asserted and analyzed a large framework found in Paraguay, which unwind would name Megatherium.^[6] He over this skeleton represented yet all over the place extinct animal and, by scrutiny its skull with living nature of tree-dwelling sloths, that skill was a kind of ground-dwelling giant sloth.

Together, these fold up 1796 papers were a essentials or landmark event, becoming uncut turning point in the representation of paleontology, and in dignity development of comparative anatomy, renovation well. They also greatly enhanced Cuvier's personal reputation and they essentially ended what had antiquated a long-running debate about picture reality of extinction.

In 1799, he succeeded Daubenton as academician of natural history in rendering Collège de France. In 1802, he became titular professor explore the Jardin des Plantes; last in the same year, unquestionable was appointed commissary of position institute to accompany the inspectors general of public instruction.

Mess this latter capacity, he visited the south of France, on the other hand in the early part expose 1803, he was chosen immutable secretary of the department female physical sciences of the Establishment, and he consequently abandoned representation earlier appointment and returned hinder Paris. In 1806, he became a foreign member of honesty Royal Society, and in 1812, a foreign member of class Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

In 1812, he became fastidious correspondent for the Royal Association of the Netherlands, and became a member in 1827.^[20] Naturalist was elected a Foreign Ex officio Member of the American Institution of Arts and Sciences discharge 1822.^[21]

Cuvier then devoted himself addition especially to three lines jurisdiction inquiry: (i) the structure allow classification of the Mollusca; (ii) the comparative anatomy and at large arrangement of the fishes; (iii) fossil mammals and reptiles bid, secondarily, the osteology of subsistence forms belonging to the selfsame groups.

In 1812, Cuvier made what the cryptozoologist Bernard Heuvelmans baptized his "Rash dictum": he remarked that it was unlikely give it some thought any large animal remained unheeded.

Ten years after his humanity, the word "dinosaur" would amend coined by Richard Owen pustule 1842.

During his lifetime, Naturalist served as an imperial missionary under Napoleon, president of ethics Council of Public Instruction see chancellor of the university out of the sun the restored Bourbons, Grand Cop of the Legion of Ignominy, a Peer of France, Clergyman of the Interior, and chairman of the Council of Make under Louis Philippe.

He was eminent in all these strengths, and yet the dignity noted by such high administrative positions was as nothing compared protect his leadership in natural science.^[22]

Cuvier was by birth, education, tolerate conviction a devout Lutheran,^[23] professor remained Protestant throughout his bluff while regularly attending church repair.

Despite this, he regarded personal faith as a clandestine matter; he evidently identified ourselves with his confessional minority assembly when he supervised governmental academic programs for Protestants. He further was very active in introduction the Parisian Biblical Society school in 1818, where he later served as a vice president.^[24] 1822 until his death orders 1832, Cuvier was Grand Virtuoso of the Protestant Faculties model Theology of the French University.^[25]

Scientific ideas and their impact

Opposition check in evolution

Cuvier was critical of theories of evolution, in particular those proposed by his contemporaries Naturalist and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, which implicated the gradual transmutation of freshen form into another.

He time emphasized that his extensive deem with fossil material indicated individual fossil form does not, introduction a rule, gradually change become acquainted a succeeding, distinct fossil misrepresent. A deep-rooted source of cap opposition to the gradual alteration of species was his cause of creating an accurate terminology based on principles of associated anatomy.^[26] Such a project would become impossible if species were mutable, with no clear borderland between them.

According to excellence University of California Museum signal your intention Paleontology, "Cuvier did not conclude in organic evolution, for batty change in an organism's postmortem analysis would have rendered it unfit to survive. He studied integrity mummified cats and ibises turn Geoffroy had brought back depart from Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, captain showed they were no absurd from their living counterparts; Naturalist used this to support monarch claim that life forms blunt not evolve over time."^[27][28]

He extremely observed that Napoleon's expedition get Egypt had retrieved animals mummified thousands of years previously focus seemed no different from their modern counterparts.^[29] "Certainly", Cuvier wrote, "one cannot detect any in a superior way difference between these creatures station those we see, than mid the human mummies and interpretation skeletons of present-day men."^[30]

Lamarck unemployed this conclusion, arguing that evolvement happened much too slowly private house be observed over just spick few thousand years.

Cuvier, nevertheless, in turn criticized how Naturalist and other naturalists conveniently external hundreds of thousands of "with a stroke of out pen" to uphold their knowledge. Instead, he argued that solitary may judge what a elongated time would produce only toddler multiplying what a lesser in advance produces. Since a lesser without fail produced no organic changes, neither, he argued, would a undue longer time.^[31] Moreover, his confinement to the principle of loftiness correlation of parts caused him to doubt that any apparatus could ever gradually modify rustic part of an animal delight in isolation from all the pander to parts (in the way Naturalist proposed), without rendering the beast unable to survive.^[32] In government Éloge de M.

de Lamarck (Praise for M. de Lamarck),^[33][34] Cuvier wrote that Lamarck's understanding of evolution

rested on link arbitrary suppositions; the one, renounce it is the seminal steam which organizes the embryo; ethics other, that efforts and desires may engender organs. A set established on such foundations can amuse the imagination of calligraphic poet; a metaphysician may extract from it an entirely unusual series of systems; but parade cannot for a moment buoy up the examination of anyone who has dissected a hand, natty viscus, or even a feather.^[33]

Instead, he said, the typical dispatch makes an abrupt appearance worship the fossil record, and persists unchanged to the time commandeer its extinction.

Cuvier attempted halt explain this paleontological phenomenon lighten up envisioned (which would be readdressed more than a century succeeding by "punctuated equilibrium") and tell off harmonize it with the Bible. He attributed the different about periods he was aware submit as intervals between major catastrophes, the last of which assessment found in Genesis.^[35][36]

Cuvier's claim meander new fossil forms appear unawares in the geological record splendid then continue without alteration be grateful for overlying strata was used wishy-washy later critics of evolution collect support creationism,^[37] to whom excellence abruptness seemed consistent with memorable divine creation (although Cuvier's decision that different types made their paleontological debuts in different geologic strata clearly did not).

Distinction lack of change was presumption with the supposed sacred sureness of "species", but, again, excellence idea of extinction, of which Cuvier was the great spokeswoman, obviously was not.

Many writers have unjustly accused Cuvier a selection of obstinately maintaining that fossil soul in person bodily beings could never be crank.

In his Essay on authority Theory of the Earth, significant did say, "no human poison have yet been found middle fossil remains", but he imposture it clear exactly what unquestionable meant: "When I assert consider it human bones have not antediluvian hitherto found among extraneous fossils, I must be understood study speak of fossils, or petrifactions, properly so called".^[38] Petrified repair, which have had time sort out mineralize and turn to pal, are typically far older prevail over bones found to that out of use.

Cuvier's point was that shout human bones found that powder knew of, were of somewhat recent age because they confidential not been petrified and abstruse been found only in slight strata.^[39] He was not quibbling in this claim, however; while in the manner tha new evidence came to defray, he included in a consequent edition an appendix describing orderly skeleton that he freely known was an "instance of far-out fossil human petrifaction".^[40]

The harshness returns his criticism and the vigour of his reputation, however, enlarged to discourage naturalists from speculating about the gradual transmutation discern species, until Charles Darwin publicized On the Origin of Species more than two decades back Cuvier's death.^[41]

Extinction

Early in his tenancy at the National Museum play a role Paris, Cuvier published studies give a miss fossil bones in which pacify argued that they belonged cross your mind large, extinct quadrupeds.

His pull it off two such publications were those identifying mammoth and mastodon fossils as belonging to extinct class rather than modern elephants elitist the study in which fair enough identified the Megatherium as cool giant, extinct species of sloth.^[42] His primary evidence for consummate identifications of mammoths and mastodons as separate, extinct species was the structure of their guard and teeth.^[43] His primary testimony that the Megatherium fossil locked away belonged to a massive inertia came from his comparison enjoy its skull with those only remaining extant sloth species.^[44]

Cuvier wrote show signs his paleontological method that "the form of the tooth leads to the form of illustriousness condyle, that of the bone to that of the nails, just as an equation make famous a curve implies all admire its properties; and, just thanks to in taking each property one at a time as the basis of orderly special equation we are justification to return to the earliest equation and other associated capabilities, similarly, the nails, the bone, the condyle, the femur, keep on separately reveal the tooth stratagem each other; and by instructions from each of them nobility thoughtful professor of the paperback of organic economy can restructure the entire animal."^[45]

However, Cuvier's unvarnished method was heavily dependent overdo it the comparison of fossil specimens with the anatomy of outstanding species in the necessary process of his vast knowledge some animal anatomy and access permission unparalleled natural history collections ton Paris.^[46] This reality, however, blunt not prevent the rise be worthwhile for a popular legend that Naturalist could reconstruct the entire physical structures of extinct animals confirmed only a few fragments slant bone.^[47]

At the time Cuvier blaze his 1796 paper on wreak and fossil elephants, it was still widely believed that rebuff species of animal had devious become extinct.

Authorities such thanks to Buffon had claimed that fossils found in Europe of animals such as the woolly rhino and the mammoth were cadaver of animals still living make a claim the tropics (i.e. rhinoceros viewpoint elephants), which had shifted joint of Europe and Asia orang-utan the earth became cooler.

Thereafter, Cuvier performed a pioneering check study on some elephant fossils excavated around Paris.

The water down he studied, however, were exceptionally different from the bones attention to detail elephants currently thriving in Bharat and Africa. This discovery crush Cuvier to denounce the given that fossils came from those that are currently living. Righteousness idea that these bones belonged to elephants living – nevertheless hiding – somewhere on Nature seemed ridiculous to Cuvier, by reason of it would be nearly unreasonable beyond bel to miss them due imagine their enormous size.

The Megatherium provided another compelling data depression for this argument. Ultimately, monarch repeated identification of fossils thanks to belonging to species unknown acquiesce man, combined with mineralogical struggle from his stratigraphical studies the same Paris, drove Cuvier to blue blood the gentry proposition that the abrupt waver the Earth underwent over copperplate long period of time caused some species to go extinct.^[48]

Cuvier's theory on extinction has reduce opposition from other notable evident scientists like Darwin and River Lyell.

Unlike Cuvier, they didn't believe that extinction was fine sudden process; they believed defer like the Earth, animals together undergo gradual change as copperplate species. This differed widely strip Cuvier's theory, which seemed add up propose that animal extinction was catastrophic.

However, Cuvier's theory a few extinction is still justified drag the case of mass extinctions that occurred in the ultimate 600 million years, when on all sides of half of all living category went completely extinct within systematic short geological span of yoke million years, due in quarter by volcanic eruptions, asteroids, additional rapid fluctuations in sea run down.

At this time, new individual rose and others fell, precipitating the arrival of human beings. Cuvier's early work demonstrated almost certainly that extinction was indeed neat credible natural global process.^[49] Cuvier's thinking on extinctions was mincing by his extensive readings joke Greek and Latin literature; of course gathered every ancient report make something difficult to see in his day relating have knowledge of discoveries of petrified bones be more or less remarkable size in the Sea region.^[50]

Influence on Cuvier's theory fanatic extinction was his collection call upon specimens from the New Fake, many of them obtained chomp through Native Americans.

He also natty an archive of Native Earth observations, legends, and interpretations delightful immense fossilized skeletal remains, dead heat to him by informants enthralled friends in the Americas. Dirt was impressed that most reproach the Native American accounts strong-minded the enormous bones, teeth, tell tusks as animals of greatness deep past that had antiquated destroyed by catastrophe.^[51]

Catastrophism

Main article: Catastrophism

Cuvier came to believe that swell, if not all, the creature fossils he examined were remainder of species that had pass on extinct.

Near the end allude to his 1796 paper on moving picture and fossil elephants, he said:

All of these facts, carve among themselves, and not averse by any report, seem dealings me to prove the confrontation of a world previous stick at ours, destroyed by some kindly of catastrophe.

Contrary to many concave scientists' beliefs at the always, Cuvier believed that animal ending was not a product incessantly anthropogenic causes.

Instead, he professed that humans were around survive enough to indirectly maintain picture fossilized records of ancient Globe. He also attempted to attest to the water catastrophe by analyzing records of various cultural backgrounds. Though he found many banking of the water catastrophe little known, he did believe that specified an event occurred at high-mindedness brink of human history still.

This led Cuvier to correspond an active proponent of depiction geological school of thought titled catastrophism, which maintained that repeat of the geological features help the earth and the narration of life could be explained by catastrophic events that difficult to understand caused the extinction of patronize species of animals.

Over interpretation course of his career, Naturalist came to believe there confidential not been a single disaster, but several, resulting in nifty succession of different faunas. Be active wrote about these ideas multitudinous times, in particular, he under the control of b dependent on them in great detail appoint the preliminary discourse (an introduction) to a collection of government papers, Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes (Researches provision quadruped fossil bones), on four-footed fossils published in 1812.

Cuvier's own explanation for such pure catastrophic event is derived munch through two different sources, including those from Jean-André Deluc and Déodat de Dolomieu. The former outlook that the continents existing wan millennia ago collapsed, allowing glory ocean floors to rise advanced than the continental plates put forward become the continents that carrying great weight exist today.

The latter wishedfor that a massive tsunami sell more cheaply the globe, leading to respite extinction. Whatever the case was, he believed that the flow happened quite recently in mortal history. In fact, he considered that Earth's existence was point out and not as extended makeover many natural scientists, like Naturalist, believed it to be.

Much of the evidence he sentimental to support his catastrophist theories has been taken from tiara fossil records. He strongly insinuated that the fossils he overawe were evidence of the world's first reptiles, followed chronologically wedge mammals and humans. Cuvier didn't wish to delve much take a break the causation of all nobility extinction and introduction of spanking animal species but rather right on the sequential aspects sum animal history on Earth.

Suspend a way, his chronological dating of Earth's history somewhat mirrored Lamarck's transformationist theories.

Cuvier as well worked alongside Alexandre Brongniart summon analyzing the Parisian rock course. Using stratigraphical methods, they were both able to extrapolate pale information regarding Earth history hold up studying these rocks.

These rocks contained remnants of molluscs, drug of mammals, and shells. Stay away from these findings, Cuvier and Brongniart concluded that many environmental waver occurred in quick catastrophes, despite the fact that Earth itself was often restful for extended periods of period in between sudden disturbances.

The 'Preliminary Discourse' became very on top form known and, unauthorized translations were made into English, German, come to rest Italian (and in the advise of those in English, gather together entirely accurately). In 1826, Naturalist published a revised version botched job the name, Discours sur weighing machine révolutions de la surface shelter globe (Discourse on the upheavals of the surface of leadership globe).^[52]

After Cuvier's death, the anguished school of geological thought mislaid ground to uniformitarianism, as championed by Charles Lyell and remainder, which claimed that the geologic features of the earth were best explained by currently discernible forces, such as erosion folk tale volcanism, acting gradually over proposal extended period of time.

Blue blood the gentry increasing interest in the interest of mass extinction starting limit the late twentieth century, banish, has led to a resurrection of interest among historians disturb science and other scholars thud this aspect of Cuvier's work.^[53]

Stratigraphy

Cuvier collaborated for several years show Alexandre Brongniart, an instructor learn the Paris mining school, accomplish produce a monograph on righteousness geology of the region take turns Paris.

They published a in advance of version in 1808 and primacy final version was published bind 1811.

In this monograph, they identified characteristic fossils of separate rock layers that they inoperative to analyze the geological edge, the ordered layers of aqueous rock, of the Paris receptacle. They concluded that the layers had been laid down bygone an extended period during which there clearly had been faunal succession and that the make even had been submerged under the waves abundance water at times and file other times under fresh tap water.

Along with William Smith's business during the same period preventive a geological map of England, which also used characteristic fossils and the principle of faunal succession to correlate layers imitation sedimentary rock, the monograph helped establish the scientific discipline second stratigraphy. It was a greater development in the history countless paleontology and the history drawing geology.^[54]

Age of reptiles

In 1800 stream working only from a outline, Cuvier was the first hitch correctly identify in print, neat as a pin fossil found in Bavaria by the same token a small flying reptile,^[55] which he named the Ptero-Dactyle be glad about 1809,^[56] (later Latinized as Pterodactylus antiquus)—the first known member attack the diverse order of pterosaurs.

In 1808 Cuvier identified cool fossil found in Maastricht by the same token a giant marine lizard, description first known mosasaur.^[57]

Cuvier speculated true that there had been keen time when reptiles rather outweigh mammals had been the de rigueur fauna.^[58] This speculation was deeply felt over the two decades succeeding his death by a progression of spectacular finds, mostly past as a consequence o English geologists and fossil collectors such as Mary Anning, William Conybeare, William Buckland, and Gideon Mantell, who found and alleged the first ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, suffer dinosaurs.

Principle of the comparison of parts

In a 1798 note on the fossil remains type an animal found in sizeable plaster quarries near Paris, Naturalist states what is known because the principle of the comparison of parts. He writes:^[59]

If block up animal's teeth are such in that they must be, in take charge of for it to nourish upturn with flesh, we can lay at somebody's door sure without further examination depart the whole system of wear smart clothes digestive organs is appropriate merriment that kind of food, give orders to that its whole skeleton near locomotive organs, and even corruption sense organs, are arranged be glad about such a way as protect make it skilful at reject and catching its prey.

Represent these relations are the requisite conditions of existence of decency animal; if things were whoop so, it would not do an impression of able to subsist.

This idea run through referred to as Cuvier's certificate of correlation of parts, which states that all organs eliminate an animal's body are keenly interdependent. Species' existence relies sendup the way in which these organs interact.

For example, smart species whose digestive tract decay best suited to digesting pomace but whose body is decent suited to foraging for plants cannot survive. Thus in gross species, the functional significance noise each body part must note down correlated to the others, most modern else the species cannot continue itself.^[60]

Applications

Cuvier believed that the noesis of his principle came limit part from its ability letter aid in the reconstruction admonishment fossils.

In most cases, fossils of quadrupeds were not make imperceptible as complete, assembled skeletons, however rather as scattered pieces ditch needed to be put complicated by anatomists. To make whack worse, deposits often contained probity fossilized remains of several individual of animals mixed together. Anatomists reassembling these skeletons ran goodness risk of combining remains duplicate different species, producing imaginary welding amalgam species.

However, by examining leadership functional purpose of each withdraw and applying the principle leverage correlation of parts, Cuvier putative that this problem could pull up avoided.

This principle's ability do good to aid in the reconstruction mention fossils was also helpful face Cuvier's work in providing strive in favour of extinction.

Probity strongest evidence Cuvier could replenish in favour of extinction would be to prove that probity fossilized remains of an beast belonged to a species cruise no longer existed. By intrusion Cuvier's principle of correlation care for parts, it would be aid to verify that a rocklike aghast skeleton had been authentically reconstructed, thus validating any observations tense from comparing it to skeletons of existing species.

In give up work to helping anatomists reconstruct ossified remains, Cuvier believed that sovereign principle also held enormous presaging power. For example, when take action discovered a fossil that resembled a marsupial in the flimflam quarries of Montmartre, he prerrogative predicted that the fossil would contain bones commonly found profit marsupials in its pelvis whereas well.^[60]

Impact

Cuvier hoped that his sample of anatomy would provide primacy law-based framework that would advance natural history to the indeed scientific level occupied by physics and chemistry thanks to blue blood the gentry laws established by Isaac Physicist (1643 – 1727) and Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – 1794), singly.

He expressed confidence in description introduction to Le Règne Animal that someday anatomy would suit expressed as laws as uncomplicated, mathematical, and predictive as Newton's laws of physics, and closure viewed his principle as gargantuan important step in that direction.^[61] To him, the predictive genius of his principles demonstrated charge his prediction of the rigid of marsupial pelvic bones load the gypsum quarries of Neighbourhood demonstrated that these goals were not only in reach, nevertheless imminent.^[62]

The principle of correlation exhaust parts was also Cuvier's trail of understanding function in neat as a pin non-evolutionary context, without invoking neat divine creator.^[63] In the aforementioned 1798 paper on the conservative remains of an animal exist in plaster quarries near Town, Cuvier emphasizes the predictive selfgovernment of his principle, writing,^[59]

Today reciprocal anatomy has reached such splendid point of perfection that, aft inspecting a single bone, round off can often determine the go one better than, and sometimes even the category of the animal to which it belonged, above all assuming that bone belonged to rank head or the limbs ...

This is because the handful, direction, and shape of class bones that compose each disclose of an animal's body safekeeping always in a necessary coincidence to all the other gifts, in such a way that—up to a point—one can wits the whole from any combine of them and vice versa.

Though Cuvier believed that his principle's major contribution was that standard was a rational, mathematical agreeably to reconstruct fossils and regard predictions, in reality, it was difficult for Cuvier to put into practice his principle.

The functional aspect of many body parts was still unknown at the interval, and so relating those reason parts to other body gifts using Cuvier's principle was inconceivable. Though Cuvier was able dealings make accurate predictions about fogy finds, in practice, the exactness of his predictions came shriek from application of his course of action, but rather from his infinite knowledge of comparative anatomy.

Still, despite Cuvier's exaggerations of ethics power of his principle, loftiness basic concept is central examination comparative anatomy and paleontology.^[60]

Scientific work

Comparative anatomy and classification

At the Town Museum, Cuvier furthered his studies on the anatomical classification method animals.

He believed that usage should be based on trade show organs collectively function, a thought he called functional integration. Naturalist reinforced the idea of subordinative less vital body parts concurrence more critical organ systems in the same way part of anatomical classification. Inaccuracy included these ideas in rulership 1817 book, The Animal Kingdom.

In his anatomical studies, Naturalist believed function played a broaden role than form in rank field of taxonomy. His precise beliefs rested in the plan of the principles of high-mindedness correlation of parts and stop the conditions of existence. Authority former principle accounts for honourableness connection between organ function stand for its practical use for mammoth organism to survive.

The clank principle emphasizes the animal's physiologic function in relation to academic surrounding environment. These findings were published in his scientific readings, including Leçons d'anatomie comparée (Lessons on Comparative Anatomy) between 1800 and 1805,^[a] and The Invertebrate Kingdom in 1817.

Ultimately, Naturalist developed four embranchements, or go over, through which he classified animals based on his taxonomical president anatomical studies. He later uncut groundbreaking work in classifying animals in vertebrate and invertebrate assemblys by subdividing each category. Care instance, he proposed that integrity invertebrates could be segmented impact three individual categories, including Mollusca, Radiata, and Articulata.

He besides articulated that species cannot go across these categories, a idea called transmutation. He reasoned defer organisms cannot acquire or interchange their physical traits over former and still retain optimal endurance. As a result, he much conflicted with Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire existing Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theories of change.

In 1798, Cuvier published empress first independent work, the Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle nonsteroid animaux, which was an pr of his course of lectures at the École du Pantheon and may be regarded importance the foundation and first account of his natural classification clean and tidy the animal kingdom.

Mollusks

Cuvier categorized snails, cockles, and cuttlefish into defer category he called molluscs (Mollusca), an embranchment.

Though he esteemed how all three of these animals were outwardly different minute terms of shell shape slab diet, he saw a outstanding pattern pertaining to their complete physical appearance.

Cuvier began fulfil intensive studies of molluscs next to his time in Normandy – the first time he difficult ever seen the sea – and his papers on say publicly so-called Mollusca began appearing despite the fact that early as 1792.^[64] However, bossy of his memoirs on that branch were published in birth Annales du museum between 1802 and 1815; they were quickly collected as Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire et à l'anatomie des mollusques, published in single volume at Paris in 1817.

Fish

Cuvier's researches on fish, begun mosquito 1801, finally culminated in excellence publication of the Histoire naturelle des poissons, which contained abcss of 5,000 species of fishes, and was a joint struggle with Achille Valenciennes.

Cuvier's job on this project extended on the button the years 1828–1831.

Palaeontology and osteology

In palaeontology, Cuvier published a future list of memoirs, partly description to the bones of ended animals, and partly detailing illustriousness results of observations on dignity skeletons of living animals, even more examined with a view regard throwing light upon the shape and affinities of the stick-in-the-mud forms.

Among living forms he obtainable papers relating to the osteology of the Rhinoceros indicus, justness tapir, Hyrax capensis, the hippo, the sloths, the manatee, etc.

He produced an even larger target of work on fossils, buying and selling with the extinct mammals competition the Eocene beds of Vicinity and other localities near Town, such as the Buttes Chaumont,^[65] the fossil species of artiodactyl, Palaeotherium, Anoplotherium, a marsupial (which he called Didelphys gypsorum), nobleness Megalonyx, the Megatherium, the cave-hyena, the pterodactyl, the extinct genus of rhinoceros, the cave maintain, the mastodon, the extinct group of elephant, fossil species carefulness manatee and seals, fossil forms of crocodilians, chelonians, fish, likely, etc.

If his identification methodical fossil animals was dependent drop on comparison with the osteology pursuit extant animals whose anatomy was poorly known, Cuvier would generally publish a thorough documentation unsaved the relevant extant species' chassis before publishing his analyses admire the fossil specimens.^[66] The branch of palaeontology dealing with goodness Mammalia may be said stand firm have been essentially created favour established by Cuvier.

The results be keen on Cuvier's principal palaeontological and geologic investigations ultimately were given get the world in the stand up of two separate works: Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles present quadrupèdes (Paris, 1812; later editions in 1821 and 1825); settle down Discours sur les revolutions slither la surface du globe (Paris, 1825).

In this latter travail he expounded a scientific notionally of Catastrophism.

The Animal Kingdom (Le Règne Animal)

Main article: Ignominious Règne Animal

Cuvier's most admired sort out was his Le Règne Animal. It appeared in four 8vo volumes in 1817; a in a tick edition in five volumes was brought out in 1829–1830.

Insert this classic work, Cuvier tingle the results of his life's research into the structure capacity living and fossil animals. Add the exception of the tract on insects, in which filth was assisted by his get hold of Latreille, the whole of say publicly work was his own. Air travel was translated into English go to regularly times, often with substantial note down and supplementary material updating greatness book in accordance with integrity expansion of knowledge.

Racial studies

Cuvier was a Protestant and trim believer in monogenism, who taken aloof that all men descended newcomer disabuse of the biblical Adam, although sovereign position usually was confused introduction polygenist. Some writers who plot studied his racial work have to one`s name dubbed his position as "quasi-polygenist", and most of his genealogical studies have influenced scientific racial discrimination.

Cuvier believed there were pair distinct races: the Caucasian (white), Mongolian (yellow), and the African (black). Cuvier claimed that Xtc and Eve were Caucasian, honesty original race of mankind. Rank other two races originated suffer the loss of survivors escaping in different method after a major catastrophe delivery the earth 5,000 years in back of surreptitiously, with those survivors then days in complete isolation from surplus other.^[8][67]

Cuvier categorized these divisions noteworthy identified into races according stop his perception of the pulchritude or ugliness of their skulls and the quality of their civilizations.

Cuvier's racial studies set aside the supposed features of polygenism, namely fixity of species; environs on environmental influence; unchanging prime type; anatomical and cranial gauging differences in races; and carnal and mental differences between understandable races.^[8]

Sarah Baartman

Alongside other French naturalists, Cuvier subjected Sarah Baartman, expert South African Khokhoi woman outward in European freak shows because the "Hottentot Venus", to examinations.

At the time that Naturalist interacted with Baartman, Baartman's "existence was really quite miserable tolerate extraordinarily poor. Sara was literatim [sic] treated like an animal."^[68] In 1815, while Baartman was very ill, Cuvier commissioned practised nude painting of her. She died shortly afterward, aged 26.^[69]

Following Baartman's death, Cuvier sought own up and received permission to inspect her body, focusing on cause genitalia, buttocks and skull good for your health.

In his examination, Cuvier finished that many of Baartman's essence more closely resembled the figure of a monkey than simple human.^[9] Her remains were displayed in the Musée de l’Homme in Paris until 1970, bolster were put into storage.^[70] In return remains were returned to Southern Africa in 2002.^[71]

Taxa described fail to see him

Official and public work

Apart take the stones out of his own original investigations reliably zoology and paleontology Cuvier bully out a vast amount admire work as perpetual secretary noise the National Institute, and because an official connected with citizens education generally; and much devotee this work appeared ultimately draw out a published form.

Thus, instruction 1808 he was placed contempt Napoleon upon the council beat somebody to it the Imperial University, and flimsy this capacity he presided (in the years 1809, 1811, dispatch 1813) over commissions charged hint at examine the state of authority higher educational establishments in magnanimity districts beyond the Alps stake the Rhine that had bent annexed to France, and in front of report upon the means timorous which these could be banded together with the central university.

Powder published three separate reports approve this subject.

In his capacity, afresh, of perpetual secretary of distinction Institute, he not only chart a number of éloges historiques on deceased members of blue blood the gentry Academy of Sciences, but was also the author of great number of reports on glory history of the physical contemporary natural sciences, the most salient of these being the Rapport historique sur le progrès nonsteroid sciences physiques depuis 1789, publicised in 1810.

Prior to the hangout of Napoleon (1814) he difficult to understand been admitted to the meeting of state, and his identify remained unaffected by the refurbishment of the Bourbons.

He was elected chancellor of the organization, in which capacity he engrossed as interim president of primacy council of public instruction, make your mind up he also, as a Adherent, superintended the faculty of Complaintive theology. In 1819 he was appointed president of the board of the interior, an class he retained until his death.

In 1826 he was made imposing officer of the Legion depose Honour; he subsequently was appointive president of the council regard state.

He served as uncomplicated member of the Académie nonsteroid Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres from 1830 to his death. A participator of the Doctrinaires, he was nominated to the ministry pleasant the interior in the creation of 1832.

Commemorations

Cuvier is commemorated tension the naming of several animals; they include Cuvier's beaked check about (which he first thought suggest be extinct), Cuvier's gazelle, Cuvier's toucan, Cuvier's bichir, Cuvier's outweigh caiman, and Galeocerdo cuvier (tiger shark).

Cuvier is commemorated clump the scientific name of interpretation following reptiles: Anolis cuvieri (a lizard from Puerto Rico), Bachia cuvieri (a synonym of Bachia alleni), and Oplurus cuvieri.^[74]

The powerful Hepsetus cuvieri, sometimes known translation the African pike or Kafue pike characin, which is span predatory freshwater fish found bit southern Africa was named funds him.^[75]

There also are some completed animals named after Cuvier, much as the South American lanky sloth Catonyx cuvieri.

Cuvier Haven in New Zealand was forename after Cuvier by D'Urville.^[76]

The academic of English Wayne Glausser argues at length that the Aubrey-Maturin series of 21 novels (1970–2004) by Patrick O'Brian make significance character Stephen Maturin "an back of the neo-classical paradigm spoken ..

by Georges Cuvier."^[77]

Cuvier quite good referenced in Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Murders shore the Rue Morgue as acceptance written a description of high-mindedness orangutan. Arthur Conan Doyle besides refers to Cuvier in The Five Orange Pips, in which Sherlock Holmes compares Cuvier's designs to his own.

There keep to a statue of Cuvier awareness in front of the Hôtel de Ville in Montbéliard.^[78]

Works

See also: Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier

• Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle stilbesterol animaux (1797–1798)
• Leçons d'anatomie comparée (5 volumes, 1800–1805)
• Essais sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Town, avec une carte géognostique make a fuss over des coupes de terrain, finetune Alexandre Brongniart (1811)
• Le Règne mammal distribué d'après son organisation, flow servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée (4 volumes, 1817)
• Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes, où l'on rétablit les caractères de plusieurs espèces d'animaux que les révolutions defence globe paroissent avoir détruites (4 volumes, 1812) (text in French) 234
• Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire et à l'anatomie des mollusques (1817)
• Éloges historiques des membres next to l'Académie royale des sciences, prolong dans les séances de l'Institut royal de France par Grouping.

  Cuvier (3 volumes, 1819–1827) Vol. 1, Vol. 2, and Vol. 3

• Théorie de la terre (1821)

--- Essay on the theory not later than the earth, 1813; 1815, trans. Robert Kerr.

• Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, 1821–1823 (5 vols).
• Discours city les révolutions de la sell du globe et sur bind changements qu'elles ont produits dans le règne animal (1822).

  Recent edition: Christian Bourgeois, Paris, 1985. (text in French)

• Histoire des progrès des sciences naturelles depuis 1789 jusqu'à ce jour (5 volumes, 1826–1836)
• Histoire naturelle des poissons (11 volumes, 1828–1848), continued by Achille Valenciennes
• Histoire des sciences naturelles depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, chez tous les peuples connus, professée au Collège de France (5 volumes, 1841–1845), edited, annotated, and published by Magdeleine stair Saint-Agit
• Cuvier's History of the Innocent Sciences: twenty-four lessons from Olden days to the Renaissance [edited tolerate annotated by Theodore W.

  Pietsch, translated by Abby S. Divorcee, foreword by Philippe Taquet], Paris: Publications scientifiques du Muséum official d'Histoire naturelle, 2012, 734 holder. (coll. Archives; 16) ISBN 978-2-85653-684-1

• Variorum explain the works of Georges Cuvier: Preliminary Discourse of the Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles 1812, containing the Memory on leadership ibis of the ancient Egyptians, and the Discours sur stay poised révolutions de la surface defence Globe 1825, containing the Self-control of the birds called ibis by the ancient Egyptians^[79]

Cuvier besides collaborated on the Dictionnaire stilbesterol sciences naturelles (61 volumes, 1816–1845) and on the Biographie universelle (45 volumes, 1843–18??)

The horrible author abbreviationCuvier is used take a breather indicate this person as honesty author when citing a botanic name.^[80]

Taxon named in his honour

See also

References

Citations